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Vrttis
The klesas represent the different forms this outward movement adopts as it comes into contact with the
objects of knowledge. The process of knowing itself is the domain of buddhi, and so by focussing our
attention on the modifications of buddhi we turn away from the objects known to focus inwardly on the means
of knowing. The modifications of buddhi are known as vrttis (from the verb root vrt = 'to turn, revolve,
roll, move') and as the means of knowing their function is to provide a connection between the seer and the
seen, the knower and the known. Patanjali lists five kinds of vrttis that correspond to the five kinds of
cognitive activity that the Yoga-darsana recognises.
As, when a jar is broken, the space enclosed by it becomes palpably the limitless
space, so when the apparent limitations are destroyed, the knower of Brahman verily becomes Brahman itself.
(Viveka-cudamani, 565) |
Mahavakyas
The knowledge that liberates (svarupa-jnana) does not produce moksa, it simply removes the ignorance that
was responsible for the illusion of bondage just as the knowledge of the rope dissolves the snake-illusion.
To know Brahman is to be Brahman. It is through this identity of the Self (atman) and the Absolute (Brahman)
that Samkara interprets what tradition refers to as the mahavakyas (great sayings) of the Upanisads.
Pramana is a means of acquiring valid knowledge, and includes direct sense perception (pratyaksa),
logical inference (anumana) and the testimony of what has come to us from tradition (agama).
Viparyaya is the misconception or misperception of one thing for another that gives rise to erroneous
knowledge.
Vikalpa is the cognitive activity associated with imagination in the sense that its objects are not
supported by the evidence of the senses. It refers to the use of the resources of language to produce
concepts or images that do not correspond to anything in the phenomenal world.
Nidra (from the verb root dra = 'to sleep' + ni = down, into') is dreamless sleep. Nidra is counted
among the vrttis, even though it is devoid of all recognisable attributes, because when we awake we may be
aware of having slept well. Nidra resembles the objectless state of asamprajnata-samadhi in being devoid of
attributes, but differs in being a predominantly tamasic state (dull and inactive).
Smrti (from the verb root smr = 'to remember') is memory or recollection, which for Patanjali is the
re-cognition of a previous experience without the addition of any new elements.
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As fluctuations or modifications of buddhi (or more generally of citta), any particular vrtti that arises
may fall neatly into one of these kinds of cognitive activity, or may be a combination of two or more of
them. Patanjali also distinguishes between vrttis that are afflicted (klista) or non-afflicted (aklista):
afflicted vrttis are associated with the klesas and so draw purusa towards the pheneomenal world, whereas
the vrttis regarded as non-afflicted are those that are conducive to liberation insofar as they draw purusa
inwards as happens in the various states of concentration (dharana), meditation (dhyana) and samadhi
recommended by Patanjali. The vrttis, afflicted or otherwise, also contribute to the creation or deepening
of latent impressions in citta known as samskaras that are laid down over many lifetimes and are responsible
for the shape of one’s karma. Samskaras are the sub-conscious traces of our experiences, and are therefore
a memory of past experiences as well as latent behavioural patterns that under appropriate conditions are
subconsciously activated and relived (see the article on karma-yoga for more details).
Vairagya and Abhyasa
Regardless of the nature of any particular vrtti, by focussing on the processes by which we know instead of
the objects known we can begin the process of restricting and then eliminating the fluctuations of citta.
Patanjali states that this is to be achieved through vairagya (dispassion, nonattachment) and abhyasa
(constant practice, continuous endeavour). In order to withdraw our attention from the objects of the senses
we must overcome our attachment to them, and this is what is required of the lower form of vairagya in which
the desire for objects of any description is eliminated. The higher form of vairagya takes us beyond the
restriction of the vrttis to their complete cessation by becoming free of any desire whatsoever, even the
desire for desirelessness or liberation itself. The first step is therefore to become unattached to the
objects and focus instead on the vrttis that connect the seer to the seen. The second is to cease to
identify with the vrttis themselves. In doing so citta is steadied and purusa is reflected without
distortion in a predominantly sattvic buddhi. This process requires abhyasa which is a sustained effort to
firstly bring the fragmented activity of citta into focus, and then to maintain the stability of citta until
the liberating discrimination between purusa and prakrti arises.
In the context of the Yoga-sutra as a whole, one way of interpreting Patanjali’s reference to vairagya and
abhyasa as means of constraining the vrttis is to connect them with the disciplines recommended in the eight
limbs of his astanga-yoga (asta = 'eight' + anga = 'limb'). In this respect vairagya is developed in both
its forms through the continued and dedicated practice (abhyasa) of the recommended disciplines. However
Patanjali also suggests an alternative to this systematic and progressive steadying of citta. For some, or
maybe more to the point for the few, a more direct means of cultivating samadhi is devotion or surrender to
Isvara (Isvara-pranidhana, I.23).
Isvara (from the verb root is = 'to rule') is conceived in different ways by various schools of Indian
thought. For instance in Sankara’s Advaita Vedanta, Isvara is the conditioned appearance of an impersonal
Absolute (see the article on jnana-yoga for more details). In Ramanuja's theistic Visistadvaita Vedanta,
Isvara is the supreme Ruler and Controller of the Universe (see the article on bhakti-yoga). For Patanjali,
though, Isvara is a purusa unique among purusas, never touched by the klesas or karma, never in need of
liberation, and responsible for the transmission of the teachings of yoga in every new cycle of prakrti.
Devotion or surrender to Isvara is not a form of bhakti-yoga which trades on the emotional force of the
devotee, but rather a direct means of turning the attention inwards and attaining samadhi by concentrating
with total commitment on Isvara as the archetype of spiritual freedom.
Obstacles to Yoga
For those capable of such a complete self-surrender the preliminary disciplines of astanga-yoga are
unnecessary. However for those of us sorely afflicted by the klesas, and so in need of a graduated series
of practices, Patanjali provides an inventory of the major obstacles (antaraya) that must be overcome in
order to succeed in yoga.
- Illness (vyadhi).
- Apathy or languor (styana).
- Doubt and indecision (samsaya).
- Negligence, heedlessness or carelessness (pramada).
- Idleness, apathy, sloth or laziness (alasya).
- Non-restraint or a lack of self-control (avirati).
- False vision, delusion or erroneous views (bhranti-darsana).
- Non-attainment of the stages of astanga-yoga (alabdha-bhumikatva).
- Instability in these stages which is the failure to maintain what has been previously achieved
(anavasthitva).
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These are considered to be obstacles to yoga because they distract us from the task of steadying citta.
Patanjali also notes that these obstacles are accompanied by several physical symptoms: pain and suffering,
despair and depression, unsteadiness of the limbs or restlessness of the body, and irregular breathing.
As a general corrective to these distractions, Patanjali prescribes a number of broad approaches, including
concentration on a single object or principle, developing a sense of friendliness, compassion and equanimity
towards the world, and regulating the breath in prescribed ways.
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